Bodansky's paper focuses on the regulation of greenhouse emissions from maritime transport.  There are many options, using known technologies, for reducing emissions from shipping, involving changes in ship design or operational practices. The IMO’s Second Greenhouse Gas Report report estimated that these design and operational changes might reduce emissions per tonne-mile by 25-75%. Many of these design and operational changes are “no regrets” measures, meaning that they have negative costs, and could be adopted without harming the competitiveness of the shipping industry, even if no one else were doing anything to control their emissions.

This report examines the factors that have put Sweden at the forefront of decarbonisation of maritime transport, and reviews how other countries could learn from this success story. It details Sweden’s efforts to decarbonise its shipping industry as well as shedding light on remaining challenges and potential measures to achieve zero-carbon shipping. The analysis has particular relevance in the light of proposals to develop National Action Plans for the decarbonisation of maritime transport in the context of the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) Initial Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Strategy. As such, the analysis presented will be of use not only to policy-makers in Sweden but also to decision- makers in other countries seeking to reduce maritime GHG emissions. The analysis benefits from interviews with stakeholders, listed in the annex, conducted during study visits to Gothenburg and Stockholm.

This study focuses on understanding the potential pathways and scenarios for the future of international shipping, in the context of wider global decarbonisation consistent with the Paris Agreement. 

This paper examines the potential for further international cooperation in aviation and shipping to achieve both climate and economic benefits. 

This report was commissioned by Seas at Risk and Transport and Environment and partfunded by BMU/UBA and by the EU Life Programme.

This article re-assesses the international shipping sector’s initial greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets against the Paris Agreement goals. The analysis is based upon the latest data from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and International Maritime Organization (IMO) and uses the concept of carbon budgets to evaluate proportionate 1.5°C emissions pathways for the sector. 

The need for further decarbonisation policy in shipping is clear. To meet the IMO’s Initial Strategy goal of at least 50% reduction in GHG emissions by 2050 and be aligned with the Paris Agreement, zero emissions vessels must be entering service by 2030, while owners of fossil-fuel ships operating during the 2020s need to consider the climate risk of a transition to a low carbon economy by maximising the energy efficiency of their vessels and switching to zero emissions fuels in the 2030s (Lloyds Register and UMAS, 2019) to avoid locking in fossil-fuel assets which need to be written off balance sheets (‘stranded assets’).

...Maritime cargo transport is a significant polluter, contributing 1.06 gigatonne, or 2.89%, of global anthropogenic emissions, which amounted to 36.57 GT of CO2 in 2018 (IMO, 2020). In the same year, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) set the first-ever sector-wide emissions reduction target, which commits to – at least – halving its GHG emissions by the year 2050 compared to 2008 levels, while aiming to phase them out entirely. This target marks a significant step forward, as the shipping industry has long avoided taking action on climate change (Bows-Larkin et al., 2014; Heine & Figueres, 2018). However, significant questions remain about how the shipping industry will meet this goal...

For international shipping to align with the IMO’s Initial GHG Strategy, zero-emission fuels would need to become the dominant fuel source by the 2040s, gradually phasing out current fossil fuels. However, there exists a significant competitiveness gap between incumbent fossil fuels and alternative zero-emission options. This gap is the result of the existence of market barriers and failures, availability issues, a relative lack of information and regulation on safety, as well as the price difference in the fuels, which in turn is driven by R&D, infrastructure, and investment requirements. Projections suggest that across the 2030s and 2040s, zero-emission fuels will be approximately double the price of conventional fuel at best (Lloyd’s Register & UMAS 2020). As a result, there is an urgent need for policy to close the competitiveness gap and ensure shipping meets its decarbonisation commitments

This study aims at informing the forthcoming IMO discussions on mid- and long-term emission reduction measures and their impacts on States.  Another objective of the study is to better understand the the possible impacts on States of a measure capable to decarbonise the sector based on a computable general equilibrium model supplemented with case studies.  This study analyses global measures which can be agreed and adopted by the IMO and follow from the Initial IMO Strategy on reduction of GHG emissions from international shipping. Regional measures and the possible interactions between regional measures and global measures are beyond the scope of this stud

There is a debate on which Market-based Mechanism (MBM) international shipping should adopt to mitigate CO2 emissions. Literature presents three preferences: one supports fuel levy, another supports Emissions Trading System (ETS), while the last remains neutral. This study aims to investigate: which MBM is suitable to mitigate CO2 emissions for international shipping?  The authors conclude that fuel levy is more suitable due to higher effectiveness in generating funds, encouraging R&D and technology adoption. ETS is harder to implement as it requires more man-hours to set-up, operate and review. ETS with full auctioning of credits becomes marginally comparable to fuel levy

This paper discusses the role and importance of maritime costs on developing countries trade and economics and then explores whether Carbon pricing will have a significant impact on the cost of maritime transport and in particular ship running costs, geographical and geopolitical factors, shipped product, market-specific factors, and infrastructure.

This paper discusses the issue of Impact Assessments (IAs) required for measures proposed under the IMO’s Initial IMO Strategy on reduction of GHG emissions from ships (Initial Strategy)3 . Definition and processes for preparing such IA’s are unclear and has become somewhat weaponized by different negotiating blocks, with some (including Pacific high ambition delegations) arguing the IA process should be an evolving one developed in parallel with the implementation of candidate measures, others arguing that no measure should be agreed until the comprehensive IA is completed and the impacts fully understood and provided for. The issue is closely connected with the concurrent debate over delineating Disproportionate Negative Impacts (DNI) arising from measures and the type and degree of compensation that might be afforded those adjudged to incur DNI...

"In February of 2014, the Sabin Center for Climate Change Law published a white paper that concluded that sovereign states have broad authority under international law to regulate GHG emissions from vessels within their registry. However, many registries are structured such that the flag state has limited connection to or exercises limited control over registered vessels.  This paper delves further into the issue of flag state authority to regulate GHG emissions particularly with respect to franchised registries and flags of convenience".

Goundar aims to look into the role of Pacific Island States in decarbonisation of the international shipping sector, looking at policy options that can support the net-zero emissions in shipping and findings reveal that Pacific States have had transistioned to an obscure role to a more influential role since 2015. 

This report  focuses on focuses on understanding the potential pathways and scenarios for the future of international shipping in the context of wider decarbonisation, consistent with the Paris Agreement.  It also focuses on the technological and operational specifications of the global fleet and how these may change in relation to a given rate of decarbonisation. It presents the results for a series of scenarios run using a model built to understand the possible futures of international shipping: GloTraM.